Studies on the Fungal Flora of Indian Currency

 

Abirami B.2, Kumar T.1*, and Saravanamuthu R.3

1PG and Research Department of Botany and Microbiology, A.V.V.M Sri Pushpam College (Autonomous), Poondi-613503, India.

2Department of Microbiology, Idhaya College for women, Kumbakonam.

3Department of Botany, A.V.C College (Autonomous), Mayiladuthurai.

*Corresponding Author E-mail: drkumar1962@gmail.com

 

ABSTRACT:

The growth of fungal organisms colonizing the India currency was studied. The samples were collected from various habitats of India culture and the subjected to microscopic and macroscopic study. The fungi were both qualitatively and quantitatively more during October, December, January and August. Totally 57 species were recorded. Aspergillus species were the predominant among other fungal species over the Indian currency collected from ten important public places. These fungi showed celluloytic activity and hence they could easily colonize the Indian paper currencies and spoil them. Aspergillosis is considered as the second most common fungal infection caused by Aspergillus fumigatus. The currency notes could possibly responsible for the transmission of the potential pathogenic microorganisms. The results indicated that improper handling of currency is also one of the reasons for the transmission of different microorganisms and for causing various diseases.

 

KEY WORDS: Indian currency, fungal flora, Aspergillosis

 

INTRODUCTION:

Money is defined as any generally accepted material even a piece of paper, embodying a promise, i.e a currency note, which is used a means of exchange and as a measure of value. Currency is handled by large numbers of people and can be a source of infection. Coins and currency notes could carry potentially pathogenic organisms and serve as fomites in the transmission of infection. Indirect contact may be through the agency of fomites, which are inanimate objects such as clothing, pencils or toys which may be contaminated by a pathogen from one person, and act as a vechicle for its transmission to another (Ananthanarayan and Paniker, 2005). Singh et al., (2002) demonstrated that pathogenic organisms from currency and found that species of Bacillus  were found to be the predominant organisms (38%) and other organisms include coagulase negative Staphylococci, β- haemolytic Streptococci, α-haemolytic Streptococci, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella, Proteus, and fungi such as Candida and Aspergillus.

 

The fungi are now recognized as organisms that cause morbidity and mortality of the man and animal. In the recent years opportunistic fungal infections have emerged as the interesting areas of research and researches may increase the awareness about the fungal diseases and their definitive diagnosis. The present article deals with the quantitative and qualitative aspects of fungi colonizing the Indian currency notes.

 

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

Samples of currency notes of the denominations of one, two, five, ten and twenty were collected from milk vendor, vegetable seller in market, petty shop, flower shop, fruit shop, sweet shop, fertilizer shop, bus conductor, chicken shop, and mutton shop located in and around Kumbakonam municipality during the period of August 2007 to January 2008. The collected samples were put in polythene bags and stappled and then brought to the laboratory and stored in refrigerator for further studies. Population of fungi were isolated by washing the currency notes and identified by serial dilution technique. Fungi were identified using standard manuals (Gillman 1957; Ellis, 1960, Ellis 1963, Ellis 1966, Ellis 1971, Ellis 1976 Subramanian 1971).

 

 

Table 1-Fungal organisms present in various shops during the period of Aug-07 to Jan-08

Or

g↓

Milk

Shop

Vegetable shop

Petty

shop

Flower

shop

Fruit

shop

Sweet

shop

Bus

conductor

Chicken

Shop

Mutton

Shop

Fertilizer

Shop

Rs.

→

20

10

5

20

10

5

20

10

5

20

10

5

20

10

5

20

10

5

20

10

5

20

10

5

20

10

5

20

10

5

a

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

2

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

b

-

1

1

2

1

2

-

-

-

1

1

1

-

2

1

-

-

-

1

1

2

1

1

-

-

-

-

1

1

-

c

1

2

1

1

2

1

4

4

3

3

3

3

3

4

2

4

3

3

2

 

4

4

3

3

4

3

3

3

2

-

d

-

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

2

1

1

1

3

3

2

2

-

-

2

1

-

3

2

1

2

-

2

2

-

-

e

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

l

-

-

-

1

-

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-

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

1

-

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-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

m

-

-

-

-

-

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-

-

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1

-

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-

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-

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-

n

-

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-

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-

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1

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-

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1

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1

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p

-

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1

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1

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-

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-

-

-

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-

-

1

-

-

-

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-

-

-

r

4

1

4

1

2

2

1

3

1

2

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

-

3

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

s

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

+

-

-

-

-

-

1

t

1

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

2

-

-

-

1

1

1

1

3

1

-

-

-

2

2

-

-

u

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

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1

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

v

-

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1

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w

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1

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1

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-

2

1

-

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1

-

x

3

4

3

3

3

2

2

2

1

2

3

3

2

2

2

3

3

1

1

2

-

3

3

2

2

1

2

1

1

1

y

-

-

-

-

-

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-

-

-

-

-

-

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-

-

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1

-

-

1

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1

1

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1

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-

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-

1

-

2

2

3

-

1

-

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1

-

aa

1

3

1

2

1

1

2

2

1

-

-

-

2

-

-

1

2

1

1

1

2

1

1

-

-

-

-

1

1

1

ba

-

-

-

-

1

1

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

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-

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1

-

-

ca

-

-

-

-

-

-

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-

1

-

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-

-

1

-

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-

-

da

-

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1

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1

-

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-

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-

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1

-

ea

-

-

-

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-

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-

1

-

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-

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-

-

-

fa

-

-

-

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-

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-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

ga

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

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-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

ha

-

1

1

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

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1

-

-

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-

1

-

-

-

-

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-

1

-

ia

-

-

-

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-

-

1

-

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-

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-

-

ja

-

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-

1

-

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-

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-

-

ka

-

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-

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

1

2

la

-

1

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

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1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

ma

1

-

1

1

-

1

1

1

1

3

1

2

1

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

1

-

1

-

-

-

-

na

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

-

1

-

-

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1

1

-

1

1

1

oa

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

1

1

1

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

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-

1

-

-

-

pa

4

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

2

1

1

-

-

1

-

2

2

-

1

1

1

1

2

2

1

1

1

1

1

qa

-

-

-

-

-

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-

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-

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-

-

1

-

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-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

ra

-

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-

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-

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-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

sa

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

ta

-

-

-

-

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-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

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-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

ua

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

va

-

-

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-

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-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

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-

-

-

-

-

-

-

wa

-

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-

-

-

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-

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-

-

-

-

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-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

xa

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

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-

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-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

1

ya

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

1

-

1

-

-

-

za

-

1

-

1

-

3

2

1

1

-

-

1

-

1

-

1

1

-

1

-

2

1

1

2

1

-

-

-

-

-

ab

-

-

-

1

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

bb

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

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-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

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-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

cb

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

db

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

eb

1

1

3

2

3

3

4

3

4

2

1

1

3

1

1

3

1

3

3

4

3

3

1

1

3

2

2

4

3

3

fb

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

gb

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

- Absence of organism, 1-Presence of organism in one month, 2-Presence of organism in two month, 3-Presence of organism in three months, 4-Presence of organism in four months.

a-A.candidus, b-A.clavatus, c- A.flavus, d- A. fumigates, e- A.moniliforme, f- A.nidulans, g- A.niger,  h- A. ochraceous, i- A. sulphurous, j- A.sydowi, k-A.terreus, l- A. Versicolor,  m- A.awamori, n-A.luchuensis, o- A.senegalensis, p- A.ustus, q- A.conicus, r-C.albicans, s-C.lunata, t-C. pallescens, u- Curvularia, v- cephalosporium, w-Drechslera species, x-F. chlamydosporum, y- F. oxysporum, z- F. semitectum,  aa- Fusarium sp, bb- F. moniliforme, cc- F.solani, dd- Helminthosporium sp, ee- H. oryzae, ff- Hyalopus ater moniliales, gg- N. sphaerica, hh- Neurospora sp, ii- Memnoniella echinata, jj- Mucor zygospora,    kk- P. chrysogenum, ll- P. citrinum, mm- P. funiculosum, nn- P.  janthinellum, oo- P. xanthinellum,                 pp- Penicillium sp, qq- P. frequentans, rr- P. martensi, ss- P. clavatum, tt- P. granulatum,  uu- P. purpurogenum, vv- P. turbatum, ww- P. oxalicum, xx- Rhizopus nigricans, yy- Sporotrichum  roseus,  zz- Sterile mycelium, aaa- Sclerobacidium  arenarium, bbb- Stigmina  caffra, ccc- T. longibrachiteum, ddd- T. viridae, eee- Verticillium sp, fff- Asperisporium carricae, ggg- Homodendrum moniliales.

RESULT:

The total number of fungal species isolated from different samples of currency notes varied from one place to another. The maximum number of fungal species was found during October, December, January, August, September and November, Qualitatively the species spectrum of fungi was more during the month of October (154),December (119), January (115) and August (110) than the other two months. Among the different species of fungi, the species of Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium were frequently isolated.

 

Species of Aspergillus isolated during the course of investigation include   A. flavus, A. fumigatus, A. terreus, A. niger A. ohcraceous, A. clavatus, A.nidulans, A. sydowi, A. versicolor, A. candidus, A. sulphureus, A. conicus, A. luchuensis, A. awamori, A. candidus, A. moniliforme, Species of Pencillium included P. xanthinellum, P. funiclosum, P. clavatus, P. purpurogenum, P. citrinum, P. chrysogenum, P. martensii, P. turbatum, P. frequentans,   P. granulatum and P. oxalicum. Species of Fusarium included F. oxysporum, F. semitectum, F. moniliforme, F. solani, and F. claydosporum, Other species included Curvularia sp, C. pallescens, Cephalosporium, Drechslera sp.,

 

 

Helminthosporium sp., H. oryzae, Hyalopus ater moniliales, Neurospora sp., N. sphaerica, Memnoniella echinata, Mucor, Zygospora, Rhizopus nigricans, Sporotrichum roseus, sterile mycelium, Sclerobasidium arenarium, Stigmina caffra, Trichoderma viridae, T. longtibrachiateum, Verticillium sp., Asperrisporum carricae and Hormodendrum moniliales

 

DISSCUSSION:

Everyone has to handle currency notes every day. They pass on from one hand to another, and during the course of transit many kinds of microorganisms contaminate the currency notes, which include normal saprophytic microflora and pathogenic microorganisms. Hence they are the potential carriers of pathogenic microorganisms and act as source of inoculums for the transmission of minor to major diseases. Various diseases such as diphtheria, trachoma, gastroenteritis, whooping cough and pathogenic agents causing diarrhea are known to be transmitted through fomites (Gilchrist, 1993). Currency might also be a fomite, playing an important role in the transmission of micro organisms and also in the spread of drug resistant strains in the community. Although there is no direct evidence for the presence of microorganisms over currency which results in infection, their understanding could provide strategies to reduce the contamination of currency.

 

 

 

Table-2 Cellulolytic activities and diseases caused by fungal organisms isolated from Indian currencies

S. No

Organisms

Cellulolytic Activity

Diseases

1

Aspergillus sp.,

+ve

Aspergillosis, Bronchial asthma, Oculomycosis, Mycotic keratitis

2

A. flavus

+ve

Farmer's lung, Aspergillosis, Turkey's-X-syndrome, Reye's

Syndrome and kodua poisoning

3.

A. fumigates

+ve

Farmer's lung, Allergic, Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis

4.

A. niger

+ve

Farmer's lung, Aspergillosis and  Otomycosis

5.

A. terreus

+ve

Aspergillosis

6.

Penicillium sp

+ve

Bronchial asthma

7.

Fusariaum sp

+ve

Oculomycosis, mycotic keratitis

8.

F. moniliforme

+ve

Esophageal cancer

9.

P. frequentans

+ve

Suberosis

10.

A. cleavatus

+ve

Maltster's lung

11

Helminthosporium

+ve

Bronchial asthma

12.

Curvularia lunata

+ve

Allergic fungal Rhinosinusitis

13.

Candida albicans

+ve

Candidiasis

14.

A. nidulans

+ve

Aspergillosis

15.

Mucor

+ve

Zygomycosis

16.

A. ochraceous

+ve

Balken endemic nephropathy (BEN)

17.

A. oryzae

+ve

Kodua poisoning

18.

A. luchuensis

+ve

Otomycosis (infection of the ear)

19.

A. sulphureus

+ve

Aspergillosis

20.

P. funiculosum

+ve

Plant pathogen

21.

T. longibrachiateum

+ve

Infection in the immuno suppressed patient

22.

F.oxysporum

+ve

Fusariosis, Keratitis, onychomycosis

23.

Rhizopus nigricans

+ve

Chronic cough, Chest tightness, Chronic phlegm, Snuffle and Allergic rhinitis

24.

C. pallascens

+ve

Cutaneous infection

25.

F, semitectum

+ve

Fusariosis

26.

A.ustus

+ve

Cutaneous infection

27.

Verticillium sp

+ve

Keratitis, Fungemia

28.

Sterile mycelium

+ve

No disease produced

29.

White sterile mycelium

+ve

No disease produced

30

P.citrianum

+ve

Pneumonia

In the present investigation 300 samples of currency notes of one rupee, two rupee, five rupee, ten rupee and twenty rupee denomination collected from different places, and 19, 18, 20, 22, 30, 19, 21, 28, 18 and 20 species of fungi including sterile mycelium were isolated from milk shop, vegetable vendor, petty shop, flower shop, fruit shop, sweet shop, bus conductor, chicken shop, mutton shop, and fertilizer shop respectively. Among these Asergillus spp was more predominant occurrence than other fungal organisms.

 

Cellulolytic enzymes are produced by a large number of micro organisms which include fungi and bacteria (Enari, 1983). In the present study, the observed results indicated that most of the fungi are having cellulolytic activity and hence they can easy colonize on the currency notes collected from various important places. Pieces of currencies were not directly placed on medium because of legal issue and so considered as dishonor of currency.

 

The general awareness about the possibility of acquiring infection while applying saliva on fingers for counting currency notes and good personal hygiene must be created in the public. The possibility of getting infection by improper handling of currency is a potential hazard especially among children, who are known to swallow coins accidentally or just keep them in mouth while playing therefore health awareness must be primarily directed towards children in the school itself through cartoons, stickers and other audio visual aids.

 

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Received on 12.02.2012          Accepted on 17.03.2012        

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Asian J. Res. Pharm. Sci. 2(1): Jan.-Mar. 2012; Page 33-36

 

 

 

 

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